Art & Civilization

  • Art & Civilization.
  • Book – ‘Jurisprudence of the Sacred – Art, Ancestral Rights, and Transitional Justice.’
  • Blogs Substack.
  • Sacred Symbols in Ancient Art & Architecture.

‘What’s past is prologue!’  (William Shakespeare, The Tempest).

‘Art & Civilization’

The History of Art and Civilization is my intellectual hobby and passion.

As a practising Cultural Heritage Barrister and Mediator, I also have a professional interest in the foundational relationship between Visual Art, Cultural Memory, Human Dignity, Ancestral Rights and International Law, together with the following additonal concepts which form part of the  ‘Interconnection Matrix’:

  • Provenance and Material Truth.
  • Cultural Sovereignty and Self-Determination.
  • Transitional Justice and Reparations.
  • Commodification v. The Sacred.

Art and Civilization are deeply intertwined, with Art serving as a mirror, record, and driver of cultural development, showing a society’s values, beliefs, and innovations through visual arts, literature, music, and architecture from prehistoric fertility figures to modern expressions, revealing history, philosophy, and creativity across millennia of human existence.

In other words,  Art embodies the story of Civilization on Earth.

Art provides invaluable insights into cultures that often lacked extensive written records, making it a primary resource for modern understanding of the past. From prehistoric cave paintings depicting hunting scenes and rituals to Egyptian tomb paintings illustrating daily activities and beliefs about the afterlife, art offers a window into how ancient people lived and what they held sacred.

The monumental architecture of the Egyptian pyramids and Mesopotamian ziggurats, for example, served to glorify rulers and gods, showcasing the wealth, power, and highly structured, hierarchical systems of these civilizations. Greek art, with its emphasis on the idealized human form, reflects their cultural values of humanism and democracy.

In societies where literacy was not widespread, Art was a vital means of mass communication, conveying important religious narratives, moral values, and political messages through symbols and visual storytelling.

The materials and techniques used in ancient Art, such as: the intricate bronze work of the Shang Dynasty in China; or the advanced stone carving of Mayan civilization, reveal the scientific and technological prowess of these cultures.

By comparing Art styles across different regions and time periods, historians can trace paths of cultural diffusion and the exchange of ideas, such as the Greek influence on Roman Art, which in turn influenced the Renaissance.

In a metaphysical sense, the History of Art is a diary of human civilization, offering a rich and multifaceted understanding of the human experience through time.

Thus Art provides a window into the soul of Civilizations that are now long gone.

So, what can humanity learn about the past and what lessons can we draw about the future from Art?

Those are the core questions that I will examine and discuss with the aid of AI in the blogs assembled in the Substack below.

‘Book’

After I have completed the writing of my current book, the ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’, I am planning from November 2027 to write one more book entitled ‘Jurisprudence of the Sacred – Art, Ancestral Rights, and Transitional Justice.’

My aim in writing this book, is to bridge the gap between ‘Visual Culture’, ‘Jurisprudence’, and the ‘Humanities’, by building from foundational theories of Visual Art (including Ancient Architecture, Gardens, Sacred Groves and Designed Landscapes), to grounded analyses of Ancestral Rights and International Law.

This is a profound subject, because it reveals how Art and Memory give physical form to abstract Human Rights. It bridges the gap between official legal frameworks (which are often colonial or bureaucratic) and lived human experience, showing how marginalized communities use Visual Culture to reclaim their Ancestral Dignity and challenge systemic oppression.

I believe that such a book is highly relevant, necessary, and beneficial, because today Humanity is confronting a global crisis in which traditional legal systems fail to protect marginalized cultures and histories.

Indigenous communities, colonized peoples, and oral cultures often recorded history and land ownership by non-written means. For example, Totem poles, textiles, and cave paintings are not just decorative; they are constitutional documents, deeds to land, and historical records.

Treating law as purely written text, i.e. in the form of statutes, cases,  documentary records and witness statements, ignores how power, memory, and rights are expressed through visual mediums.

Whoever controls the medium controls the rights; thus by restricting ‘the law’ to text, dominant power structures maintain control over what counts as truth.

Consequently, International Law has a critical blind spot. That is because, by treating Law as purely written text, a court or tribunal will disadvantage a marginalized community whose History, Law, and Rights are embedded in Visual and Material Culture. When an International Court or Tribunal makes a finding of Law or Fact based solely upon written text, the legitimate legal claims of these groups are thereby invalidated.

For example, the International Court of Justice in the Hague operates under a strict, state-centric statutory framework that generally resists treating visual culture or humanities-based interpretations as independent, binding legal testimony.

So, in the context of International Cultural Heritage Disputes i.e. between states, there needs to be an evolution in Law and Procedure, to enable the interpretation of Visual Culture as being binding legal testimony.

In other words – true Human Rights protection requires merging the tools of Art History and the Humanities with International Law, in order to recognize and protect Ancestral Heritage.

The intersection of International Law, Ancestral Heritage, and Visual Evidence is currently a subject of intense Academic and Legal controversy and evolution.

My primary case study will be the nineteenth-century landscapes and seascapes of the Ionian School of Art on Corfu as a premier site of legal-visual negotiation.

Far from neutral aesthetic representations, the natural topographies of Corfu during this period were deeply entangled with shifting regimes of sovereignty, transitioning from Venetian feudal structures to the bureaucratic land-reforms of the British Protectorate (1815–1864), and ultimately to integration with the Greek state. Corfiot landscape art operated as an active visual site where ancestral land tenure, the ‘sacred’ rights of monastic estates, and imperial property laws collided.

Analysing how local painters captured the physical environment, the Case study will reveal how visual culture was deployed to either legitimize colonial cartography or assert indigenous, ancestral rights over the Ionian soil and sea. By reference to nineteenth-century landscape collections, the Case study will therefore seek to clarify the role of landscape art in articulating regional identity.  Ultimately, the aim of the the Case study is to demonstrate how the representation of Corfu’s natural environment was a highly sophisticated ideological act which redefined the relationship between geographical reality and aesthetic truth.

I consider the Case study to be compelling because:

(i) Transitional justice and legal evolution require a backdrop of rupture. The Ionian Islands (and Corfu specifically) offer a dense, hyper-stratified legal history compressed into a short historical window. This is a landscape that absorbed:

  • Venetian feudalism – Deeply entrenched, customary, and bound up with ancient oligarchic land grants.
  • French radicalism – Brief revolutionary interruptions that challenged feudal structures.
  • The British Protectorate (1815–1864) – The introduction of utilitarian bureaucracy, aggressive Torrens-style land registration, and colonial cartography aimed at codifying and taxing the land.
  • The Enosis (1864) – Integration into the Greek state, which required a rapid re-imagining of regional identity into a broader national narrative.

(ii) The nineteenth-century Ionian School is a visual ledger of these rapid transitions. The art does not merely depict a changing landscape; it registers the psychic and political friction of legal systems supplanting one another.

(iii) Corfu provides a brilliant materialization of the concept of ‘Jurisprudence of the Sacred’ through its monastic estates and ancient sacred olive groves.

  • Under Venetian rule, monastic lands and ancestral tenures (timaria) were often viewed as immutable, bound by spiritual and customary pacts that transcended simple real estate.
  • The British administration viewed these uncodified, often communal or ecclesiastical land rights as legal ‘anomalies’ that hindered economic productivity.

When an Ionian School painter depicts an ancient, gnarled Corfiot olive grove or a isolated monastery on a cliffside, they are not just capturing chiaroscuro or romantic topography. They are capturing contested legal zones. Arguably, these paintings re-consecrate the land, asserting a ‘sacred‘ ancestral right to the soil that defies the cold, geometric violence of British colonial survey maps.

(iv) Since a core element of the thesis of the book is rejection of art as a ‘neutral aesthetic representation’ – by treating the canvas as a space of legal negotiation, the Case study elevates the Ionian School from a minor regional movement to a crucial site of ideological resistance and assimilation.

  • Colonial Cartography v. Aesthetic Truth – While British engineers drew boundaries to enforce property laws and extract revenue, local painters (such as Angelos Giallinas or Vikentios Lanza) painted atmospheric realities. The choice to paint a landscape with soft, dissolving horizons rather than sharp, demarcated borders can be read as an ideological refusal of colonial categorization.
  • The Sea as Sovereign Space – The Ionian Sea was a highway of empire, heavily policed by the British maritime grid. A painting of a local fishing vessel or a turbulent Corfiot coastline negotiates who truly ‘owns’ the visual and economic sovereignty of the waves.

In order to research the Case study, I will first need to acquire a sufficient academic knowledge of Art History and Visual Culture – in particular of theories and methodologies, which will be my starting point. I already speak French and will also need to acquire a knowledge of Italian and modern Greek.

The current outline chapter structure for the book is set out below.

‘Jurisprudence of the Sacred – Art, Ancestral Rights, and Transitional Justice.’

Carl Islam

Draft: 10.06.2026 

Part I – Foundations of the Sacred and the Visual

Chapter 1- Introduction: The Interconnection Matrix

  • Scope: Defines the core thesis linking visual culture, human dignity, and International Law.
  • Themes: Introduces the concepts of Material Truth, Cultural Sovereignty, and Transitional Justice.
  • Methodology: Establishes the interdisciplinary framework bridging Legal Jurisprudence with Art History.

Chapter 2 – Built Memories: Ancient Architecture and Spatial Jurisprudence

  • Scope: Analyses how ancient built environments embody early cosmic, natural, and ancestral laws.
  • Themes: Temples, monuments, and public spaces as visual manifestations of authority and governance.
  • Legal Link: The transition of spatial sacredness into foundational concepts of territory and sovereignty.

Chapter 3 – Cultivating Law: Gardens, Designed Landscapes, and Ancestral Custom

  • Scope: Examines how manipulated landscapes express ownership, kinship, and stewardship.
  • Themes: Indigenous land management, sacred groves, and ritualized geography as living archives.
  • Legal Link: Contrasting Western property law with ancestral, non-extractive relationships to the earth.

Part II – The Fractured Matrix – Dispossession and Commodification

Chapter 4: Commodification v. The Sacred: The Ontological Clash

  • Scope: Investigates the transformation of living ancestral entities into museum artifacts and commercial assets.
  • Themes: The impact of colonial extraction and global art markets on sacred material culture.
  • Legal Link: Critiquing the limitations of Western property frameworks in protecting intangible, communal heritage.

Chapter 5 – Provenance and Material Truth – Art History as Legal Evidence

  • Scope: Positions art historical methodologies as essential tools for forensic legal inquiry.
  • Themes: Technical art history, archival tracing, and establishing the unbroken chain of custody.
  • Legal Link: Evidentiary standards in international courts for ownership disputes and cultural genocide.

Part III – Sovereignty, Rights, and International Law

Chapter 6 – Cultural Sovereignty and Self-Determination

  • Scope: Explores the right of Indigenous and ancestral communities to control their visual narrative.
  • Themes: Visual sovereignty, iconoclasm, and the reclamation of stolen cultural identities.
  • Legal Link: Analysis of UNDRIP (UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples) and International Human Rights Law.

Chapter 7 – Human Dignity and the Visual Archive

  • Scope: Addresses the deep connection between the preservation of visual culture and human dignity.
  • Themes: Decolonizing the museum archive, restricted access to sacred imagery, and community curation.
  • Legal Link: Right to culture as a non-derogable element of human dignity under international law.

Part IV – Transitional Justice and Path Forward

Chapter 8 – Restitution as Reparation – Transitional Justice in Practice

  • Scope: Assesses case studies where the return of art and ancestral remains facilitated transitional justice.
  • Themes: Bilateral treaties, museum deaccessioning policies, and truth and reconciliation commissions.
  • Legal Link: Designing holistic legal remedies that look beyond financial compensation to spiritual healing.

Chapter 9 – Conclusion – Toward a Sacred Jurisprudence

  • Scope: Synthesizes the matrix to propose a new, integrated framework for future legal and artistic scholarship.
  • Themes: Summary of key findings and actionable recommendations for policy makers and curators.
  • Legal Link: A call to evolve international law to recognize the legal personhood of the sacred and the ancestral.

Case study – ‘The Ionian Horizon – Constructing Landscape, Locality, and Aesthetic Truth in Nineteenth-Century Corfu.’

Blogs Substack

‘SACRED SYMBOLS IN ANCIENT ART & ARCHITECTURE’

Sacred symbols in Ancient Art and Architecture serve as powerful visual representations of cultural beliefs, spiritual concepts, and societal values. These symbols, found across various civilizations, convey profound meanings and connect us to the thoughts, beliefs, and experiences of people from the past.

By studying sacred symbols in ancient art, we can gain a deeper understanding of the cultures that created them and the profound spiritual ideas that shaped their world.

Examples include:

A Triangle inside a Circle: 

  • In ancient art and mysticism, a triangle inside a circle is a potent symbol of balance, harmony, and unity between earthly and divine realms. The specific meaning can vary by culture and context.

Key Symbolic Meanings:

  • Unity and Wholeness: The circle universally represents eternity, the cosmos, totality, and the infinite. The triangle symbolizes the ‘triadic’ nature of existence (such as mind, body, spirit; or past, present, future). The combination signifies the contained balance and harmony of these core elements within the universal whole.
  • Deity and the Divine: In ancient Egypt, the triangle was an emblem of the Godhead. The symbol has been used in various religions to represent supreme, all-encompassing power.
  • Protection: In some esoteric or occult traditions, the combined symbol was considered a means of protection against evil spirits, with the circle offering a protective boundary and the triangle providing stability.
  • Creation and Preservation: In Hinduism, the equilateral triangle is often associated with the Trimurti: Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). The yantras (geometric diagrams for meditation and worship) often use intricate arrangements of triangles within circles to represent cosmic truths and the abode of deities.
  • Alchemical Transformation: In some alchemical symbols, the combination of shapes represents the balance of elements and the process of alchemical transformation, such as with the Philosopher’s Stone (which often includes a square as well). Ultimately, the symbol represents the perfect union of the physical (often represented by the triangle’s grounded stability) and the spiritual/eternal (the circle’s endless nature).

A Circle inside a Square  

In Ancient Art and philosophy, a circle inside a square symbolizes the reconciliation of opposites, the unity of the spiritual and material realms, or the integration of the divine and earthly principles. The circular form represents the infinite, perfection, and heaven, while the square embodies the finite, stability, and the earthly realm, with their combination signifying spiritual transcendence, balance, and the completion of the Great Work. This symbol is found in alchemical traditions, spiritual quests, and even in representations of cosmic unity, such as mandorlas in Christian art or the architecture of sacred sites like the Kaaba, to express the fusion of opposing yet complementary forces.

Key Symbolism:

Heaven and Earth

The most common interpretation is that the circle symbolizes heaven or the divine, while the square represents the earth or the material world, and their merging signifies the union of these two domains.

Union of Opposites

It represents the reconciliation of seemingly opposite concepts, like the infinite and the finite, or the divine and the earthly, achieving harmony and balance.

Spiritual and Physical Harmony

The squared circle can symbolize the alchemical quest to unite the spiritual and material aspects of existence, leading to perfection and enlightenment.

Transcendence and Perfection

It embodies the idea of spiritual awakening, transformation, and the fulfillment of the soul’s journey, resulting in a balanced and perfected state.

Examples in Ancient and Spiritual Contexts:

Alchemical Symbolism

The squared circle is a key symbol in alchemy, representing the Philosopher’s Stone and the union of opposites necessary for the Great Work of transformation.

Sacred Architecture

The architecture of sacred spaces, like the Kaaba in Islam, can represent a symbolic meeting of heaven and earth, acting as a spiritual center.

Christian Art

The mandorla, a pointed oval sometimes enclosed by a square, symbolizes the divine union of Christ’s human and divine natures in the Resurrection, representing perfection and fulfilment, according to the Magis Center.

Mandalas and Yantras

In some traditions, the combination of circle and square in mandalas and yantras helps focus and examine energy in a controlled manner, promoting clarity and the generation of new energy.

Mandalas and Yantras are geometric designs used in spiritual traditions to aid meditation, focus, and the invocation of deities or spiritual energies. ‘Mandalas’ are typically larger circular diagrams representing the cosmos or the universe, while ‘Yantras’ are smaller, more specialized geometric diagrams often used as a visual anchor for specific mantras, or sacred sounds. Yantras function as ‘instruments‘ or ‘engines,‘ calling a deity into the presence of the practitioner through their symbolic and intricate designs.

The Faravahar

In ancient Zoroastrian art, the Faravahar symbolizes the core principles of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds through its distinct features: the human face represents the soul, the pointing hand signifies aspiration, the wings embody the threefold path to righteousness, the central circle represents the eternal soul, and the opposing lower wings depict the struggle against evil. While its exact meaning is debated, it is widely understood as a guardian spirit, a symbol of moral choice, and a representation of divine power or glory.

Symbolic Elements of the Faravahar:

Human Face

This element signifies the human soul, embodying our capacity for spiritual understanding and growth.

Pointing Hand

The upward-pointing hand represents aspirations and the human desire to reach higher spiritual goals.

Wings

The three layers of feathers in the wings are a profound representation of the core Zoroastrian concept of ‘good thoughts, good words, and good deeds’.

Circle

The central circular disc symbolizes the eternal nature of the soul and the cyclical nature of life.

Lower Tail

The tail, often described as a rudder, suggests the guidance and balance needed to overcome the forces of evil.

Opposing Wings/Tail

Some interpretations suggest the opposing nature of the two wings or tail sections represents the ongoing struggle between good and evil, a central theme in Zoroastrian dualism.

Broader Significance:

Guardian Spirit 

The Faravahar is often seen as a guardian spirit or a representation of the divine glory or power known as Khvarenah.

Moral Guide

The symbol serves as a reminder and guide for individuals to live a moral and virtuous life by focusing on good thoughts, words, and actions.

Achaemenid Empire Identity

The Faravahar was prominently displayed on the stone carvings of the Achaemenid Empire at Persepolis, acting as a symbol of their cultural and religious identity.

The Phoenix

In Ancient Art, the Phoenix symbolizes renewal, resurrection, and immortality, representing the triumph of life over death and the ability to rise from destruction to a fresh start. It was associated with the sun, the Roman Empire, and as an allegory for Christ in Christianity, appearing in various cultural traditions and artistic forms, from Egyptian mythology (as the Bennu) to the Roman coinage and later medieval bestiaries.

Symbolism of the Phoenix:

Renewal and Resurrection

The most prominent symbol is the cycle of death and rebirth from its own ashes, representing a new beginning and the triumph of life over death.

Immortality and Eternal Life

The bird’s long life and rebirth from its own remains signify enduring existence.

Hope and Transformation 

It embodies the idea of overcoming adversity and emerging stronger from difficult times.

The Sun

In Egyptian mythology, the Bennu (the Egyptian phoenix) was linked to the sun god Ra and symbolized the sun’s cyclical nature and power.

Cultural & Historical Significance in Art:

Ancient Egypt

The Bennu bird was connected to the sun and represented the cyclical nature of life and the sun’s eternal cycle.

Ancient Greece & Rome

The Phoenix was seen as a symbol of immortality and renewal, with its vibrant plumage representing the sun’s radiance. It was depicted on coinage in the late Roman Empire to symbolize the Eternal City of Rome.

Christianity

Early Christians adopted the phoenix as an allegory for Christ’s death and resurrection. It appeared on early Christian tombstones, reinforcing the concept of life after death.

Chinese Culture

The Fenghuang, the Chinese phoenix, symbolizes grace, virtue, and harmony. It was associated with the imperial house and represented fidelity and good fortune.

Medieval Art:

The phoenix was a popular figure in medieval bestiaries, frequently used as a symbol for Christ and his sacrifice.

The Pine Cone

In antiquity, a person or deity holding a Pine Cone, universally represented spiritual enlightenment, fertility, regeneration, and everlasting life.

The Pine Cone was a near-universal symbol found across Sumerian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations, often symbolizing the ‘third eye’ (or pineal gland) and the ‘Tree of Life’.

It is also found in the ancient stone art of Central and South America, e.g. in Mexico, the goddess Chicomecoatl is depicted holding pine cones as a symbol of fertility and agriculture.

Dionysus and his followers (Maenads) were commonly shown carrying a thyrsus, a staff topped with a pine cone, which symbolized fertility, prosperity, and the male generative force. The staff represented the union of feminine (staff) and masculine (pine cone) energies.

‘Assyrian Winged Genii’ – In 713–716 BC palace carvings, divine winged figures are depicted holding a pine cone and a container (bucket), symbolizing the pollination of the ‘Tree of Life’ or a ritual of purification and spiritual enlightenment.

The staff of the Egyptian god Osiris featured two intertwined serpents rising to meet at a pine cone, symbolizing the rise of spiritual energy (similar to Kundalini), wisdom, and immortality.

Across cultures, the pine cone was a symbol for the pineal gland, the ‘Seat of the Soul’ located in the center of the brain, representing the ‘Third Eye’ and the ability to perceive higher dimensions of light.

The pine cone was associated with the goddess of love, Venus, representing fertility and regeneration.

The iconic 13-foot bronze ‘Pigna’ sculpture at the Vatican is a famous example, having originally stood next to the Temple of Isis in ancient Rome as a symbol of immortality and renewal.

Some modern esoteric studies argue that the Pine Cone exclusively represented the ‘transmission of knowledge’, and suggest a connection to the Sumerian Anunnaki.

Ancient Egyptian Symbols

  • Ankh: Symbolizes life and immortality.
  • Eye of Horus (Wadjet): Represents protection, healing, and restoration.
  • Scarab Beetle: Symbolizes rebirth and transformation.
  • Djed Pillar: Represents stability and strength.
  • Shen Ring: Symbolizes eternity and protection.
  • Ouroboros: Represents the cycle of life, death, and rebirth.
  • Tree of Life: Represents destiny and eternal life.
  • Feather of Ma’at: Symbolizes truth, justice, and balance.
  • Ka and Ba: Represent the life force and personality of the soul, respectively.
  • Sacred Symbols in other Ancient Cultures
  • Mandala: Represents the universe and wholeness in Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
  • Flower of Life: A sacred geometric pattern found in various cultures, representing creation and interconnectedness.
  • Cross: A central symbol in Christianity, representing the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
  • Arabesques: Geometric patterns in Islamic art, symbolizing the infinite nature of God.
  • Dove: Symbolizes peace and the Holy Spirit in Christian art.
  • Snakes: Can symbolize both danger and wisdom in various cultures.
  • Sphinx: Symbolizes wisdom, power, and protection.

Purpose of Sacred Symbols:

  • Convey spiritual concepts:

Symbols communicate abstract ideas about life, death, the divine, and the cosmos.

  • Evoke emotions and awe:

Sacred symbols can evoke a sense of reverence, wonder, and spiritual connection.

  • Represent cultural beliefs:

Symbols reflect the values, beliefs, and worldview of a particular culture.

  • Guide spiritual journeys:

Symbols can serve as visual tools to aid in meditation, contemplation, and spiritual growth.

  • Communicate across time:

Symbols provide a way to understand the thoughts and beliefs of past civilizations.

  • Enhance rituals and ceremonies:

Symbols play a vital role in religious and cultural ceremonies, adding meaning and significance.

Examples of Sacred Geometry:

Found in the proportions of the Great Pyramids at Giza, as well as in nature.

Used in ancient Egypt and other cultures, often aligned with cardinal directions and incorporating sacred geometry.

Found in various forms of ancient art and architecture, reflecting a belief in the mathematical order of the universe.